Sorghaghtani Beki: Mother of the Mongol Empire
“Behind every great man there stands a great woman.” Whoever first coined that statement was an astute student of history. Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great, maneuvered behind the scenes to ensure her son was well prepared to become king. Credited by many for securing Socrates as his teacher, it was also rumored that she had a hand in having his father, Philip II, killed to make sure he became the next king [Conquest 154]. Nero’s mother, Agrippina, also helped her son ascend to the throne. As emperor of the Roman Empire, Nero was, unfortunately, too paranoid about his relatives and had Agrippina assassinated [Pax 86]. Anna Strauss, mother of Johann II, guided her son’s musical education to help him become the most prolific and popular Viennese composer/conductor ever. She also handled the business end for the Strauss orchestra, which included booking performances, scheduling tours and handling the finances [Kemp 64].
All of these women were powerful, intelligent and astute in their own rights, which translated into success for their sons and a place in the history books for them. Yet none of them could make the claims of those that are credited to Sorghaghtani Beki, daughter-in-law of Chinggis Khan and mother to four sons. Through her persuasive advice and political savvy, she was able to help mold her sons and shape the Mongol Empire and, therefore, world history. Beki was well regarded by all that met her, to include Friar John Pian di Carpine who wrote that “this woman was highly honored among the Tartars, the only exception was the emperor’s mother...” [Advisors]. Bar Hebræus, a Jacobite physician and missionary, also praised her as “a queen who trained her sons so well that all princes were amazed by her administrative skills.” With such accolades from noted historians and observers of the time, it was not surprising that this remarkable woman has been credited with ensuring that her sons became the Mongolian Empire’s royal line.
Born into the Kerait tribe of Central Asia, Sorghaghtani Beki was the niece of Ung Khan (also called Wang Khan). Her people were a Mongol tribe that had converted to Nestorian Christianity in 1008 CE. They remained independent of the Mongol Empire until Temüjin Chinggis Khan defeated Wang Khan in 1203 CE and their tribe was assimilated into the empire. As a peace offering, Wang gave Beki as a wife for Chinggis’ youngest son, Tolui [Church]. From their union, she gave birth to four sons: Möngke, Khubilai, Hülegü, and Arigh-Böke.
Although she was illiterate, Beki’s Nestorian background and exposure gave her insight as to the importance of education for dealing with different peoples and cultures. It is also rumored that her intelligence and Nestorian-based logic made her a valued advisor to Chinggis Khan, but reliable documented proof of this assertion could not be found for the purposes of this paper. The genesis of this legend was probably to help explain how she became such a political genius; however, this is highly unlikely, given Mongol customs for child rearing. The noted 13th century historian Rashïd al-Dïn wrote that Tolui accompanied his father on most of his military campaigns, which would have left Beki behind to tend to the rearing of their four sons [Advisors].
She made sure that her sons mastered the standard Mongol skills of horseback riding and hunting with the bow, which they did on a regular basis. Yet they were also part of the large royal family of Chinggis Khan, which, to Beki, meant they needed to learn much more. To prepare them to be good leaders, she obtained tutors to make sure they learned to read and write in two different languages. One that we know of is the Uighur Turk by the name of Tolochu, who taught Khubilai to read and write in Mongolian. Khubilai also learned the basics of Chinese, but it’s not clear whether Tolochu had a hand in this area [Advisors]. What is clear, though, is that Beki passed on her political observations and philosophical beliefs to her sons.
Given her demonstrated intelligence and ability to draw astute conclusions from her observations, it’s also likely that she influenced her husband, Tolui, in non-military matters. He was well respected by the other Mongol leaders for not only his military successes, but also for his other leadership qualities in dealing with both Mongols and subjugated peasants. When Chinggis Khan died in 1227 CE, these great leadership qualities made Tolui a perceived threat to his older brother, Ögödei, whom Chinggis pre-selected as his successor.
After Chinggis’ death, the Mongol nobles called for a khuriltai to elect a new khan. All throughout the process, Tolui supported and backed his brother Ögödei, and, after two years, Ögödei was selected. Tolui continued to follow his brother, but he and his sons were still considered a threat to the continued rule of Ögödei and, eventually, his sons. In 1232 CE, Tolui died suspiciously from a poisoned drink, which many historians believe was at the order of Ögödei [Fletcher 37]. It also appears that he was well aware of the clout and sway Sorghaghtani Beki had with the other nobles. In order to eliminate any possible challenges from her sons in the future and to bring her support under his banner, Ögödei tried to persuade the new widow to marry his son, Güyüg. Beki declined politely but firmly, telling him that “her responsibilities to her sons outweighed her wish to marry the Khagan’s son” [Advisors]. Whether she declined out of suspicion that Ögödei had a hand in her husband’s death or simply as a means of giving her sons an independent path to the throne, she showed her political tact and savvy in her response.
Not ending it there, she went on to request an appanage from Ögödei that would remove her from the capitol area of the empire. Whatever her motive for responding the way she did, it worked; Ögödei reluctantly agreed, and in 1236 CE gave her the area in northern China known as Chen-ting [Advisors]. He also gave a goodly appanage to Khubilai (Hsing-chou), which raises the question of whether he made similar offers to Beki’s other sons. Firm evidence of such an offer has been elusive, but it would only make sense as a means of appeasing the powerful family and keeping them busy elsewhere.
Now empowered as the female ruler of a section in northern China, Sorghaghtani Beki truly showed her political genius with the policies she put into affect. Realizing the huge difference between ruling over other Mongols nomads and these Chinese peasants, Beki astutely concluded that she needed to avoid the traditional village raids and promote agricultural production by the peasants instead. By allowing and encouraging her Chinese subjects to grow their crops, the tax revenue generated was much higher than what may have been raised through the traditional Mongol cattle-based economy.
Her Nestorian background also played a big part in instituting a policy of religious tolerance. Realizing that it would be extremely difficult for her relatively small Mongol presence to effectively control a much larger Chinese population, she mandated a policy of no religious discrimination in order to gain further approval and support of her Chinese subjects. Although she remained faithful to her Nestorian faith, she also patronized Buddhism, Taoism and Islam. Beki offered alms to the poor, rewarded many religious leaders, and contributed greatly to building mosques and various theological schools [Advisors]. As a result, her period of rule was both peaceful and prosperous.
On the other hand, her son Khubilai had to learn his mother’s lessons the hard way. As a prominent warrior and leader of Mongolia, he was nonchalantly absent from his newly obtained domain and had other Mongol officials run things for him while he stayed in the capitol of Khara Khorum. As a result, he was unaware that his representatives were harshly taxing the Chinese and forcing many to neglect their farms and businesses to perform labor for the Mongols. By the time he got wind of the growing problems and unrest, most of the 10,000 households within his domain had already abandoned the homes and farms to move away.
Given Sorghaghtani Beki’s well-earned reputation and success, it’s likely that Khubilai consulted his mother (at least privately) as to how best handle the deteriorating situation. Even if he didn’t, though, her teachings and influence were still evident in his solutions. Khubilai replaced all of the Mongol officials and tax collectors with experienced officials, many of whom were Chinese specifically recruited to improve relations and restore a healthy economy [Advisors]. He also looked to various religious leaders to advise him on other related matters to help regain the faith and trust of the people. Eventually it all paid off; by 1240 CE, most of the displaced residents had returned and the economy was stable. In the end, this episode was looked upon as a banner moment for a quickly-developing Khubilai, and the influence of his mother’s guiding hand and wisdom was transparently obvious.
After Ögödei Khaghan died in 1241 CE, the Mongol Empire slipped perilously close to total disintegration before Sorghaghtani Beki was able to use her influence to reunite it. As typical power-players in Mongol politics, many royal wives, widows and mothers stepped forward to promote their candidate for Khaghan. This was not unusual since the senior women of each clan maintained high status and influence in clan affairs and tanestry [Heroines]. First to make her presence felt was Ögödei’s widow, Töregene, who campaigned for her son, Güyüg. Güyüg hadn’t been the first choice as successor because of his ongoing feud with his cousin, Batu, but his mother considered him a stronger candidate than her other son, Köden, who was in poor health. Once it was clear that Güyüg was the leading candidate, Töregene called for a khuriltai in 1246 CE (as was her right as widow of the Khaghan) to have him officially selected as the next leader.
Güyüg was soon enthroned as Khan (as was documented by Friar John Pian di Carpine), but his rift with Batu cost him the support to have him declared Khaghan. Knowing he had to do something about it to win over the others, Güyüg went forth to kill his cousin, Batu. He never made it, though, dying along the way in 1248 CE. This put the empire in turmoil once again.
Güyüg Khan had three sons, but they weren’t old enough to be Khan, so his widow, Öghül Qamish, sat in regency on their behalf. Meanwhile, the succession process started all over again with the royal Mongol women promoting their favorite candidate. As her own candidate, Öghül put forth a nephew not of Ögödei’s line—Shiramün. Although Ögödei had liked his nephew and believed he would make a good khan, Shiramün’s nomination met with strong resistance from many of the other nobles. This was when Sorghaghtani Beki was finally able to step in and flex her political muscle.
In order to see one of her sons on the throne, Beki knew she had to accomplish two objectives: to undercut support for the leading candidate, Shiramün; and then, to garner the support of Batu, who was the other strong candidate. To meet her first objective, Beki conferred with the other nobles and argued that the next great khan should be a direct descendant of Chinggis Khan—which Shiramün was not. Fanning the flames of memories past, she quickly convinced the nobles that Shiramün was not acceptable and they soon sided with Beki against Öghül. With the first objective accomplished, she then turned her attention to swaying Batu to support her eldest son, Möngke. Nobody knows exactly how she convinced the strong and proud Batu, but convince him she did. For his price, Batu exacted the autonomous rule of the Golden Horde to the north. With both objectives met, the supporting nobles quickly called for a khuriltai, which was convened in 1251 CE [Fletcher 39].
In late 1252 or early 1253 CE, Möngke finally garnered overwhelming support and was enthroned as Khaghan. Unfortunately, Sorghaghtani Beki didn’t live long enough to see her son crowned. She died earlier that year, still campaigning and persuading for her son’s election [Timeline]. Although it wasn’t mentioned in any of the texts researched, her passing probably had a great deal of influence over the khuriltai. Beki was so well respected by other Mongols nobles that one could imagine emotional arguments both for and against Möngke’s election. For Möngke’s supporters, it would’ve been easy to whip up emotional and nostalgic support to make Beki’s dream and vision come true. For those that opposed Möngke, it would have been just as logical and easy for them to posit that Beki was the true strength and without his mother’s continued presence or sage advice, Möngke would be a poor choice. Either or both scenarios might very well have been true, since many competing princes from the houses of Ögödei and Chaghadai (elder brother of Ögödei) were eliminated during this time frame, both figuratively and literally [Fletcher 39].
She may have been gone, but Beki’s influence—or lack thereof—was felt for many years to come. Möngke ruled over the Mongol Empire until his death in 1259 CE, and became well known for his religious tolerance and administrative skills—both of them traits learned from his mother. In 1256 CE, Möngke dispatched his younger brother, Hülegü, to the Middle East in an effort to oust the Turks and expand their regions in the West. At the time, Hülegü was married to Doquez-khatum, a Nestorian princess just like his mother. When Hülegü and his forces entered Baghdad, it spelled the end for the Abbäsid dynasty and death for the last Caliph. To prevent any unnecessary bloodshed, it was Doquez-khatum who interceded to save the Christians. When he heard about the event, Möngke was so impressed he wrote to his brother that “You would do well to consult her in all his affairs” [Heroine]. To repay his wife for earning him praise from his Khaghanate brother, Hülegü honored Christians within his new domain by supporting them and building Nestorian churches all over the realm. His treatment of the Christians earned him their widespread support across the region, including those in the kingdom of Lesser Armenia (Cilicia) who came to his aid during the Syrian campaign against the Mamlüks [Rossabi 20]. Again, Beki’s influence and teachings were felt, albeit in the form of Hülegü’s Nestorian wife, Doquez-khatum.
When Möngke died, Sorghaghtani Beki’s wisdom and restraint was sorely missed. The tanestry process once again became ugly when both Khubilai and his younger brother, Arigh-Böke, both actively vied for the throne and the Mongol Empire divided its loyalties. Khubilai held the support of the armies in Northern and Western China, while Arigh-Böke controlled Mongolia. Hülegü controlled Persia and the Middle East, but it’s not clear what designs he may have had on the throne for himself. Embroiled in a battle with the Mamlüks in Syria, he had left the fighting to his generals so he could travel to Khara Khorum for the khuriltai. Without his guidance, though, his troops were soundly beaten at Damascus, so he was forced to turn around and resume command of the fight. Some historians debate what Hülegü’s original intentions might have been, but evidence points strongly to his support for Khubilai, albeit only verbally because of the distance [Rossabi 20].
The split amongst supporters for Beki’s two sons was centered mostly on whose vision of a future Mongol Empire with which they agreed. Khubilai believed in continuing Möngke’s efforts to conquer Southern China because of the rich resources they contained, and planned to rule as his mother had taught him. Arigh-Böke and his supporters took the more traditional Mongol view of conquering and plundering, preferring to take what they wanted or needed from the conquered populace regardless as to how it may have affected them. As a result of the family schism, both groups held their own khuriltai to elect their preferred candidate as Khaghan. In 1260 CE, both Khubilai (in May) and Arigh-Böke (in June) were enthroned as Khaghan of the Mongol Empire; a bloody Mongolian civil war quickly ensued. The war went badly for Arigh-Böke, mainly because he didn’t have the same level of resources (men and materiel) that his brother Khubilai controlled and commanded. Four years after it started, Khubilai defeated his brother [Conqueror].
Once it was over, the problem was what to do with Arigh-Böke, whom the other nobles wanted to execute for treason. Khubilai was reluctant to order his death, so he asked the other nobles to confer together and settle the matter. They declined because they needed to tend to internal problems within their own regions brought on by the civil war.
One reason Khubilai probably didn’t want to be responsible for his brother’s death was that he realized he needed the support of Arigh’s followers to successfully reunite and rule over the Mongol Empire. It’s also a good probability that the nobles didn’t want to be the “trigger-men” for Arigh’s death because it would open themselves to retribution from Arigh-Böke’s many surviving supporters. Conveniently, the problem solved itself when Arigh died of an illness in 1266 CE. Many nobles felt this was a little too convenient and believed Khubilai had a personal hand in his brother’s death, but there was no evidence he was involved [Throne].
In analyzing the rift that occurred between Khubilai and Arigh-Böke, it quickly becomes apparent that Sorghaghtani Beki’s influence was missing from her youngest son. This could have been either because she didn’t instill the same training in Arigh-Böke that she did with her other sons (possibly because of an age difference), or Arigh simply rejected her teachings in favor of the more traditional ways of plundering and pillaging. In either case, her presence and diplomatic skills would have most likely prevented the rift and subsequent civil war. Because of his training and experience, Khubilai would have probably been her chosen candidate for Khaghan. As for Arigh-Böke, she probably would have deftly maneuvered him into a situation similar to the deal she struck with Batu, giving him sovereignty over a different region of the empire. One strong possibility would have been the Central Asian domain of Khubilai’s cousin, Khaidu, who openly challenged his sovereignty. Just as Möngke sent Hülegü to Persia, Khubilai could have truly used his younger brother to take care of the problem Khaidu posed to his reign for years to come. With Beki’s ability to astutely analyze the political landscape, she most likely would have seen both the problem and possible solution. As a result, the Mongol Empire might have survived a few more generations before it deteriorated into the state of political intrigue that spelled its doom.
Instead, Khubilai found himself alone and in the typical Mongolian position of having to prove himself worthy of being called Khaghan. He had to continue southward and complete the conquest of Song China for several reasons: he needed to win the respect of his fellow Mongols; the lands to the south were much richer and more fertile than those in the north, and the wealth they offered was much needed; and, he needed to complete the conquest in order to secure their southern border.
Once Khubilai completed the conquest of China, he continued to follow his mother’s advice and example in order to help the Mongols make the transition from nomadic steppe conquerors to an empire for a developing civilization. To this end, he instituted her policies of “religious tolerance, support of the religions, support of the indigenous economy, and literacy,” just as he’d done in the north [Women]. Khubilai also relied on advise from his devout Buddhist wife, Chabi, who had many insightful qualities similar to Beki’s.
Much as Doquez-khatum successfully advised Hülegü to be tolerant, Chabi advised Khubilai to court the help and support of the Song imperial family instead of persecuting or destroying them. The deposed Emperor Hsien was given the title of Duke of Ying, and Khubilai made sure he continued living at a level of luxury he was accustomed to. Hsien’s mother, the Empress Dowager Hsieh, continued to live comfortably in the capitol until her death in 1282 CE. Her daughter chose to join a Buddhist convent, where she lived until her death around 1296 CE. Chabi’s advice to Khubilai and his generous treatment of the royal family went a long way in building goodwill with the Chinese people [Throne].
The lessons that Sorghaghtani Beki taught her sons can clearly be seen in how they were applied. When listing the reasons for the resounding successes of Möngke, Hülegü and Khubilai in ruling over the empire, it becomes a laundry list of Beki’s beliefs and policies: religious tolerance, support all religions, promote the indigenous economy, and literacy. Her youngest son, Arigh-Böke, was the only one who was unsuccessful, but he chose—for whatever reason—to follow the old traditions of a more barbaric Mongol culture that embraced none of Beki’s beliefs. For any successive Mongol rulers who wanted to be successful, these were obvious lessons to learn and apply.
Her legacy has endured through the ages for reasons as diverse as her skills. Whether it be her Nestorian faith, the foresight to realize religious tolerance and support of the peasant farmers would make for a prosperous reign, her administrative skills, her political genius, or the fact that she accomplished all of that while being illiterate, Sorghaghtani Beki was remembered and admired by all.
For what she accomplished with her sons, she was often referred to as the “directing spirit of the house of Tolui.” For her faith, several missionaries and travelers, including Marco Polo, referred to her as a devout Christian—in spite of the fact that she was a Nestorian and thus considered a heretic by the Roman Church. But, Bar Hebræus probably said it best when he commented that “if I were to see among the race of women another who is so remarkable a woman as this, I would say that the race of women is superior to the race of men” [Women].